A fugue is a contrapuntal composition for a number of separate parts or voices.
e.g. “a fugue in 4 parts”, “a fugue in 3 voices”.
Each part/voices enters in imitation of each other.
In this music theory lesson we are going to look at the basic structure of a fugue in 4 voices/parts.

The Basic Structure of a Fugue

The 1st voice/part starts by playing a melody/phrase called the Subject.
The 2nd voice then enters playing the “answer”. The answer is a transposed version of the subject.
The 3rd voice then enters playing the subject again and then the 4th voice enters playing the answer.
This whole section of music is called The Exposition.
When all the voices have entered this signals the end of the Exposition

After the Exposition there comes an Episode.
This is a connecting passage of music and is usually made up of a development of the music that has already been heard in the Exposition.
After the Episode, there is another entry (or entries) of the Subject, followed by another Episode. This alternating of Subject entries and Episodes continues until the end of the piece.

Contrasts of Key in a Fugue

Contrasting keys play a vital role in the composition of a fugue.

Key Contrasts in the Exposition

In the Exposition the subject 1st appears in the tonic key.
The 2nd voice plays the “answer” in dominant key (a 5th higher or a 4th lower) – this transposed line in the 2nd voice is called the answer. If it is an exact transposition of the subject then it is called a “real answer”. However, if it is altered to fit the new key then it is a ”tonal answer”.
The Subject is repeated in the entry of the 3rd voice (usually in the tonic, but at a different octave) and is “answered” by the 4th voice, again in the dominant key.

Key Contrasts in Episodes

The Episodes are often used by the composer of a fugue to modulate to different keys. This brings added variety to the entries of the Subject later on in the fugue.

Other Features of Fugues

Countersubject

A Countersubject often appears in the Exposition (and also later in the fugue). A countersubject acts like an accompaniment to the Subject and Answer. So, the voice/part which has just played the Subject will go on to play the Countersubject whilst the next voice is playing the answer.

Stretto

Stretto literally means “drawn together”. In the context of a fugue it describes a situation where each voice enters before the previous voice has finished its subject. This overlapping technique is used by composers to increase the emotional tension of the piece.
Here is a diagram of stretto:

Can you see how each voices enters before the previous voice has finished playing its subject?

Double Fugues

You will sometimes come across Double Fugues. These can be seen in 2 forms:

1. 2 subjects appear together at the start of the piece
2. A subject is introduced at the start of the piece and answered in the usual way. A second subject is then introduced and also answered. The 2 subjects are then combined at a later point in the piece.

Example of a double fugue – J.S. Bach – Prelude and double fugue no. 18 in G sharp minor BMV 887 (WTC II)

Other Useful fugal forms

• Fughetta – this is a shortened fugue
• Fugato – this is a passage of music in fugal style, but not in itself an actual fugue.
• Accompanied Fugue – these are sometimes found in oratorio movements where there is a free instrumental part accompanying the singing.

Examples of Fugues

There are many examples of fugues. Arguably the most famous composer of fugues is J.S. Bach. Have a listen to any of Bach’s fugues from the Well Tempered Clavier to get started.
Alternatively, have a listen to this string quartet play The Art of Fugue by Bach.

In Depth Analysis of a Fugue

An in depth analysis of a fugue is beyond the scope of this music theory lesson.
However, if you are wanting to extend your knowledge of fugues here is an excellent analysis of a Bach fugue by an American educator.

The circle of fifths is a brilliant musical tool, but can be confusing when you first look at it. It is a fantastic tool for understanding and working out key signatures in all the major and minor keys and helping us understand the relationship between different keys. However, it looks confusing because it appears like there are loads of different bits of information spread all over the circle.
But do not fear!
The circle of fifths is not as confusing as it first appears! If you follow these simple steps then you will be able to understand the circle of fifths and catapult your musicianship to the next level!

Step 1 – Why is it called the circle of fifths?

The best way to understand the circle of fifths is to learn how to create one.
The first step in creating a circle of fifths is to draw the basic circle (hence why it is called the “circle of fifths”
So, draw a circle on a piece of paper.
Click Here to download a Circle of Fifths Template
Number the right hand side of the circle from 0-6 like a clock face.

Once you have drawn your circle with the numbers on the right hand side we are ready to add in the different keys. Start by adding the letter C above the 0 at the top of the clock face. This represents the key “C major”. It has 0 sharps and flats in its key signature (hence why it is positioned above the number “0”).

Now we are going to see why it is called the “circle of fifths”.
In order to fill in the keys on the right hand side of the circle we need to count up in intervals of a “perfect fifth”. An interval is simply the distance in pitch between 2 notes. A perfect fifth is a distance of 7 semitones. The easiest way to see this is by looking at a keyboard.

Have a look at the keyboard above. We are going to start on the note “C” and count up 7 semitones (a “perfect fifth”). If we count up 7 semitones (a “perfect fifth”) from the note C we get to the note G.
So, G is the next note on our circle because it is a perfect fifth higher than C. Write G above the number 1 on our circle.

To find the next note above G we simply count up another 7 semitones (a “perfect fifth”) starting on G (see below):

If we count up 7 semitones from G we get to D. Write the letter D next to the number 2 on our circle.
If you repeat this process you will find that the next 4 letters are A, E and B.

Now when you get to B you are simply going to count up another 7 semitones, but this time you don’t land on a white note – you land on an F sharp (see the keyboard below):

So you write “F sharp” under the number 6 on your circle.

Great! We have now completed the first half of our circle of fifths. This tells us how many sharps are in each of the major keys we have written down. So, in G major there is 1 sharp (we have written the letter G next to the number 1). In D major, there are 2 sharps, A major, 3 sharps, E major 4 sharps, B major 5 sharps and in F sharp major there are 6 sharps. It is probably a good idea to put a little sharp sign next to each of the numbers as I have done in the diagram above.

Quick Tip: Check the letter names are filled in correctly by counting the alphabetic distance between them – each of the keys should be 5 letters apart. e.g. C-d-e-f-G-a-b-c-D, etc..

Now we are going to fill in the left hand side of the circle of fifths. The left hand side tells us how many flats are in different keys. Start at the top again with the number 0 and fill in the left hand side of the circle with the numbers 0-6 (6 is again at the bottom of the circle like a clock face).

To fill in the keys, again start at the top with the key C (0 sharps or flats). This time, however, we are going to count down 7 semitones (a perfect fifth) as we go round the left hand side of our circle – (this makes sense really, because we are going the other way round the circle). So, if we start at C and count down 7 semitones we get to F as you can see from the keyboard below:

If we count down another 7 semitones we get to B flat. Repeat this method and we get E flat (number 3), A flat (number 4), D flat (number 5) and G flat (number 6).
Great! We can now see how many flats each of these keys has by simply looking at the number next to the key. So, F has one flat, B flat has 2 flats, E flat has 3 flats, etc.. Again, putting a little flat sign next to each of these numbers will help you remember these are the flats.

Enharmonic Equivalents

Notice how the number 6 is shared between 2 different keys – F sharp and G flat.

These are actually the same note on a keyboard, but named differently. This is called an enharmonic equivalent.
There are 2 more enharmonic equivalents we can add in to complete our keys. If we extend the numbers on the right hand side of the clock face round to 7 and count up a perfect fifth from F sharp we get to C sharp. Likewise, if we extend the numbers on the left hand side of the clock face around to 7 and count down a perfect fifth from G flat we get to C flat.
If we add these extra keys in we now have 3 points on our circle which are shared (enharmonic equivalents) between sharps and flats.

Quick Tip: Remember, the letter names always need to be 5 alphabetic spaces apart – that is why we say “C flat” instead of “B”.

Now, I suggest at this point that you pause and have a go at creating the circle we have just produced. I have produced a pdf of the circle with the different points to get you started – you can download it at the bottom of this page. Feel free to download it, print it off and have a go at filling it in. Actually drawing the circle yourself will really help you learn it. Try to see if you can get all the way to 7 on each side of the circle to show that you understand the enharmonic equivalents.

Step 2 – Learn The Sharps and Flats Rhyme

Hopefully you have had a quick chance to draw the basic circle of fifths which tells us how many sharps and flats are in each of the keys. Now we need to know which sharps and flats are in each key – this is called the key signature.
In order to do this we simply need to learn a rhyme (mnemonic) for the sharps and one for the flats. There are lots of different rhymes people have made up. I am going to teach you one that I have found to be pretty memorable.

For the sharps the rhyme is:

Father Christmas Gave Dad An Electric Blanket
This gives the letters “F-C-G-D-A-E-B”.
These are the sharps that you fill in around the right hand side of the circle starting with F on the number 1.
Have a look at the diagram below:

Now we can see not only how many sharps are in each key, but which ones they are! So, G major has one sharp – F sharp. D major has 2 sharps – F sharp and C sharp. A major has 3 sharps – F sharp, C sharp and G sharp, etc.. (we add a sharp each time).

For the flats the rhyme is:
Blanket Explodes And Dad Gets Cold Feet
This gives the letters “B-E-A-D-G-C-F”.
These are the flats that you fill in around the left hand side of the circle starting with B on the number 1.
Have a look at the diagram below:

So, now we can see which flats are in the keys. So, F major has one flat – B flat. B flat major has 2 flats – B flat and E flat. E flat major has 3 flats – B flat, E flat and A flat, etc.. (we add a flat each time).

Step 3 – What about the minor keys?

We now can see the key signatures of all the different major keys with either sharps or flats in them.
But what about the minor keys?
The good news is that you don’t need to learn any extra key signatures because every minor key has a relative major key. A relative major and relative minor share the same key signature.
So, all you need to do is learn where to position the minor keys on the circle of fifths and you will immediately be able to see the minor key signatures.

To find the relative minor you just need to count down 3 semitones from the major key.
Let’s have a look at C major as an example.
C major is at the top of our circle and has 0 sharps and flats.
If we count down 3 semitones from C we get to A – so, the relative minor of C major is A minor:

We can fill this in on the circle as follows:

Now let’s try the next key on the circle – G major. Count down 3 semitones from G and you get to E – so, E minor is the relative minor of G major.
You can repeat this process for all of the major keys round the circle (this technique works for both sides of the circle).

The Completed Circle of Fifths

Once you have added in all the relative minor keys your circle should look something like this:

The amazing thing about this circle is that all of the different layers are all separated by perfect 5ths! The major keys, the relative minor keys, the sharps and the flats are all separated by intervals of a perfect 5th (7 semitones). The only difference is that it the interval is going up with sharps and going down with flats.

Click on the link below to download my circle of fifths wall chart to help you remember it.

DOWNLOAD THE CIRCLE OF FIFTHS WALLCHART
Anyway, I hope you have found this music theory lesson helpful!
Please have a look at the video above if you haven’t had a chance yet as I think you will find it really helpful.
Also, feel free to download the circle of fifths template below so you can have a go at creating your own circle of fifths.

DOWNLOAD CIRCLE OF FIFTHS TEMPLATE

In the next lesson we are going to look at relative majors and minors.

Modulation describes the process where a piece of music changes from one key to another key.

When you start writing a piece of music one of the first things you do is choose a key to compose in. This choice of key determines the scale you use, how many sharps and flats there are and what chords you can use. This key is sometimes called the “home key”.

Many songs and pieces remain in this home key and do not change. However, to make a piece more interesting a composer may choose to change into a different key at some point during the piece. This change is called a modulation.

There are lots of different ways of modulating, but we are going to have a look at 2 of the most common ways you will come across:

Pivot Chord or Common-chord Modulation

The advantage of pivot chord modulation is that it enables a smooth change from one key to another. It does this by using a pivot chord.
A pivot chord is a chord that belongs to both the home key and the the key the music is changing to.
Let’s look at an example:

Imagine we are wanting to write a piece of music in G major.
We could use the primary chords of G major (I, IV, V) which are the chords G, C, D.

Now imagine we would like to modulate to D major.
The primary chords in D major are D, G, A.

Can you see that chord V in G major (D) is the same as chord I in D major (D)?
This means we could use the chord D as a pivot chord to modulate from G major to D major.

Can you also see that chord I in G major (G) is the same as chord IV in D major (G)?

This means that we have a choice of 2 pivot chords that we could use.

Have a look/listen to the following piece which modulates from G major to D major:

      Click Here To Listen To Pivot Chord Modulation

This technique of pivot chord modulation works best if you move to closely related keys (keys that only have a few sharps/flats different from each other).

Closely Related Keys

Phrase Modulation/Abrupt Modulation

The 2nd type of modulation we are going to have a look at is Phrase Modulation or Abrupt Modulation.

This modulation is a sudden change of key.
No pivot chord is used.
A Phrase Modulation often involves a key change that goes up by a semitone or a tone. You will hear it in lots of pop songs as the key changes for the last verse or chorus to create and exciting ending to the song.

Have a listen to this example from The Backstreet Boys’ song “I want it that way”.
The song starts in A major. Listen to how there is a sudden key change up a tone to B major for the last chorus of the song (2 mins 32 seconds into the video).

How to spot a modulation

Modulations can be spotted by listening and looking:
Abrupt Modulations can be easy to hear (like the Backstreet Boys’ track above). They are sudden and not designed to be subtle!

However, pivot chord modulations can be harder to spot. You will be able to spot some pivot chord modulations by listening. However, you may find it easier to spot them by looking at the sheet music.
When a piece of music modulates a composer may write a new key signature – this is a sure sign that the piece has changed key. Also, you will often see accidentals appear (accidentals are sharps or flats written next to a note in the music). However, be careful as these accidentals may also appear if the piece is in a minor key (the seventh note will often have a sharp next to it) or if the music is quite chromatic.

Using Modulations

Hopefully this session has helped you understand modulation better.
Now it’s really important you have a go!

• Try improvising on the piano/guitar using the primary chords of G major. Then try modulating from G major to D major using a pivot chord.
• Listen to some music from different styles. Can you hear any modulations? How many pop songs can you find with an abrupt modulation for the final section?
• Have a look at some sheet music. Can you spot any pivot chord modulations?

Have fun!!

Arpeggios are an amazing musical technique which you will come across all the time in lots of different styles.
The music theory term arpeggio (or broken chord) simply describes when the notes of a chord are played one after the other rather than at the same time. This is as opposed to a block chord where the notes are all played at the same time.

Have a look/listen to this example showing a block chord followed by an arpeggio:

      Block Chord and Broken Chord audio example

Why are Arpeggios so amazing?

Arpeggios are an amazing musical technique because they:

1. sound great (have a listen to the Bach and Coldplay examples below)
2. add rhythm to an accompaniment
3. allow instruments that can only play one note at a time (monophonic instruments. e.g. trombone) to play a chord
4. develop technique in a performer – every teacher tells their students to “practice your scales and arpeggios”!

Some Amazing Examples of Arpeggios

Here are 3 great musical examples of pieces which contain arpeggios:

Bach Prelude in C major

Coldplay “Clocks”

Jean Michel Jarre “Oxygene”

This is a great example of an automated arpeggio generator called an arpeggiator which is used a lot in dance music.

Using arpeggios in your compositions

It’s really easy to use arpeggios in your compositions and you will find that they take them onto a whole new musical level. As soon as you have a chord progression worked out try paying the chords as broken chords instead of block chords. Have a look at this example below:

Here is my chord progression:

Am G F E

Now listen to the difference between when I play them as block chords and then as arpeggios/broken chords:

      Arpeggio composition example audio example

Can you hear how it takes the piece onto a new level straight away?
Hope this helps!
Good luck trying them out!

Chord inversions add a richness to a chord progression and are a great tool for composers to use.
I am going to show how easy chord inversions are to understand and give you a few examples of when you should try to use them in your songs/pieces.

Understanding Chord Inversions

Chord inversions are really easy to understand!
Think of a triad – it has 3 notes.
The bottom note is called the root note, the middle note is called the 3rd and the top note is called the 5th.

If you play a triad with the notes in this order then it is in Root Position.

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Now, let’s play the triad again, but this time we are going to move the root note to the top of the triad. The 3rd is now at the bottom of the triad.

This is called First Inversion.

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Let’s play the triad one last time, but this time we are going to move the 3rd to the top.
The 5th is now at the bottom of the triad.

This is called Second Inversion.

What about third inversions?

There is another inversion called a 3rd inversion.
This happens when you are using a 4-note chord such as a seventh chord.
If you put the 7th note at the bottom of the chord then this is in Third Inversion.

How are chord inversions written?

In contemporary music you will see inversions written in 2 main ways:

Roman numerals
In the Roman numeral system of writing chords a lower case letter is written after the chord to show if it is in an inversion. The letter “b” is used for 1st inversion and the letter “c” is used for 2nd inversion.
So:
Ib = Chord I in its 1st inversion
Ic = Chord I in its 2nd inversion

Popular Music
In popular music you will often see chord symbols like G/B. This says that a G chord should be played with a B at the bottom (a G triad in first inversion).
G/D would mean that a G chord should be played with a D at the bottom (a G triad in second inversion).

When should I use chord inversions?

You can start using the 1st and 2nd inversions in your compositions straight away. The key thing I want you to remember is that when you play an inversion it will sound like it is leading somewhere.

Using the 1st inversion

First inversions are a great way of building emotion and leading from one chord to the next. They sound really good if you are moving from chord I to chord IV in your chord progression.
Have a listen to this example:

      First Inversion Audio Example

Using the 2nd inversion

Second inversions are fantastic if you want to bring a section of your music (e.g. the chorus) to a strong finish.
If your chord progression finishes I-V-I then if you play Ic-V-I then it will sound great. Have a listen to this example:

      Second Inversion Audio Example

Hope this helps!
Good luck trying out chord inversions!

In the final lesson on chords we are going to look at arpeggios.

The term chord progression simply refers to the order in which chords are played in a song/piece of music.
Play a few different songs/pieces and you will see that there are various different ways in which composers order chords.
However, the good news is that there are a few simple guidelines which will help you massively when writing your own chord progressions.

The 5 basic rules of Chord Progressions

There are 5 basic rules to follow when writing a chord progression.
Follow these and your chord progression will definitely “work”:

1. Choose a key to write in (if you are just starting out the C major, G major, A minor and E minor are good keys to start with)
2. Work out the primary chords (I, IV, V). Start to build your progressions with these. Then move on to using secondary chords (II, III, VI) to develop your chord progressions further.
3. Always start and end your chord progression on chord I
4. Try using some common progressions (see below)
5. Try adding some circle progressions (see below)

The Common Chord Progressions

There are some chord progressions which are used in lots and lots of different songs/pieces – they have been tried and tested in many different styles and will “work”.
Learn these and you will be able to play lots of different songs and easily use them in your composing.
They will work in both major and minor keys.

Start with the following 4 progressions. (I have done an audio example in both a major key and then a minor key for you to listen to)

Progression 1

      Click Here To Listen To Chord Progression 1

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Progression 2

      Click Here To Listen To Chord Progression 2

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Progression 3

      Click Here To Listen To Chord Progression 3

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Progression 4

      Click Here To Listen To Chord Progression 4

The Circle Progressions

Circle Chord Progressions are progressions where the chords seem to naturally follow on from one another.
You will find the following 2 circle progressions really useful.
Have a listen to the audio examples for each (again, each recording contains an example in a major key followed by an example in a minor key).

Circle Progression 1

      Click Here To Listen To Circle Progression 1

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Circle Progression 2

      Click Here To Listen To Circle Progression 2

Quick Reference Chord Progression Sheet

I have put together this cheat sheet to give you the basic chord progressions in every key!
Feel free to screenshot it/print it out for quick reference.
You will see that some of the keys are really complex with lots of sharps and flats. If you are just starting out I suggest you choose one of the following keys to write in:

Major – C, G, D

Minor – Am, Em, Bm

Major Key Chord Progressions

Minor Key Chord Progressions

In the next lesson we are going to look at Chord Inversions.

Seventh chords are the most common extension of the basic 3-note triad you come across.

A seventh chord is built by adding an extra note to a triad which is an interval of a 7th above the root note.
e.g. If you build a triad on C you will use the notes (C-E-G). If you add a another note a 7th above C then you will have C-E-G-B. You have just created a basic seventh chord.

The 5 Types of Seventh Chords

There are 5 types of 7th chord you will come across and want to use in your music. Each one gives a characteristic sound which will help you when composing music.

Major seventh chord

The major seventh chord has a much softer sound than the dominant seventh. Again, it is created by taking a major triad, but this time adding a note a major seventh (11 semitones) above the root.
e.g. a major seventh chord on C contains the notes C-E-G-B (B is a major seventh/11 semitones above C).
You will often see it written as CM7

      Click Here To Listen To Major Seventh

The major 7th is used a lot in jazz as it gives a very laid back feel to the music.
If you want to start to learn how to play jazz just try playing around with the primary chords and play them as major seventh chords instead of the basic triads – your playing will definitely sound jazzy very quickly!

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Dominant seventh chord

The dominant seventh chord is the most common and in many ways the most important of the seventh chords.
It is created by taking a major triad and adding a note a minor seventh (10 semitones) above the root. e.g. a dominant seventh chord on C contains the notes C-E-G-Bb. (Bb is a minor seventh/10 semitones above C).
You will often see it written as C7

      Click Here To Listen To Dominant Seventh

The dominant 7th is used a lot in blues music.
It is also used at a perfect cadence to make the ending sound really strong (listen to how strong the ending sounds in the audio example). If you have used chord V then chord I in a song/piece you have written try adding the 7th to the chord V and see how strong it makes the cadence sound.

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Minor seventh chord

The minor seventh chord also gives quite a jazzy feel to a piece of music.
It is created by taking a minor triad and adding a note a minor seventh (10 semitones) above the root.
e.g. a minor seventh chord on C contains the notes C-Eb-G-Bb (Bb is a minor seventh/10 semitones above C).
You will often see it written as Cm7

      Click Here To Listen To Minor Seventh

Try playing some major seventh chords followed by the minor seventh version – this will sound like “cool jazz”!!

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Half-diminished seventh chord

The half diminished seventh chord is the first of the two 7th chords which give a feeling of tension.
It is created by taking a diminished triad and adding a note a minor seventh (10 semitones) above the root.
e.g. a half diminished seventh chord on C contains the notes C-Eb-Gb-Bb.
You will often see it written as a slashed circle followed by a 7 (see the table below)

      Click Here To Listen To Half Diminished Seventh

Can you hear the feeling of tension you get with the half-diminished seventh chord?

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Diminished seventh chord

The final seventh chord is the diminished seventh chord. This gives a very distinctive tense and scary feel.
It is created by taking a diminished triad and adding a note a diminished seventh (9 semitones) above the root.
e.g. a diminished seventh chord on C contains the notes C-Eb-Gb-Bbb). (Bbb is “B double flat”).
You will often see it written as a small circle followed by a 7 (see the table below)
As you can tell from the audio example below it is a brilliant chord to use if you want to create tension in your music.

      Click Here To Listen To Diminished Seventh

Seventh Chords Made Easy

Hope this lesson has helped you understand seventh chords and given you some inspiration for your composing.
I have put together a summary table below of the 5 seventh chords to make things easy for you. Feel free to screen shot or print it out so you’ve got it to refer to.

In the next lesson we are going to look at Chord Progressions.

In the last lesson we looked at the primary chords. These are the most common chords you will come across and are a great starting point for composing music.
Now we are going to have a look at the next most common chords you will come across and use – the secondary chords.

How to work out the Secondary Chords

Similarly to primary chords, it’s really easy to work out the secondary chords in any key – they are the triads built on notes II, III and VI.

So, in C major the secondary chords are D minor (II), E minor (III) and A minor (VI).
Notice how these chords are all minor chords – these contrast with really well with the primary chords which are all major.

Let’s have a look at an example in a minor key.
In A minor the secondary chords are B diminished (II), C major (III) and F major (VI).
Again, these contrast really well with the minor primary chords.

Secondary Chords in Every Key

I want to make things easy for you guys again so I have done a table of all the secondary chords in every key for you to use:

Secondary Chords in Major Keys

Secondary Chords in Minor Keys

Composing Using Secondary Chords

Using secondary chords in addition to primary chords is a great way to take your songs/pieces onto a new level.
Once you have come up with an idea using primary chords (check out my session on composing using primary chords if you haven’t yet) then you can add some secondary chords into the mix.

Have a go experimenting – just as long as you remember to always start and end on chord I then you should be fine.
Enjoy making music!!

Ready for some more learning?

Next, we are going to have a look at Seventh Chords.

The primary chords are the 3 most commonly used chords in music. Lots of songs and many pieces of music that you will hear will be built around them because they work well together.
If you are starting to try to compose your own music then an understanding of the primary chords is going to give you a big head start.

How to work out the Primary Chords

It’s easy to work out the primary chords in any key – they are simply the chords (or triads) built on notes 1 (I), 4 (IV) and 5 (V) of the scale. (Note how Roman numerals (I, IV and V) are used to indicate the chords).

So, for example, in the key of C major the primary chords are C (I), F (IV) and G (V).
In G major, the primary chords are G (I), C (IV) and D (V).

Listen to how these chords seem to “belong together”. Just by playing them one after the other you get a sense of the key you are in.

      Click Here To Listen To Primary Chords Example

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Primary Chords in Every Key

To make things easy for you I have done a table of the primary chords in every major and minor key so it’s really quick to work them out. (The root note of the chord is in bold and the other notes that make up each chord are in small type):

Primary Chords in Major Keys

Primary Chords in Minor Keys

Composing using Primary Chords

Primary chords are a great starting point for composing a song or instrumental piece.
Try the following step by step guide to get you started:

1. Choose a key to write in (if it’s your first attempt choose C major; if you want to write in a minor key try A minor)
2. Start and end on chord I
3. Play the other chords (IV and V) in whatever order you want (you can use guitar or piano to play the chords – whichever instrument you play)
4. Now try improvising a melody over the top of the chords. If you are a singer you can start to hum a tune (don’t worry about the lyrics yet – you can work on those later)
5. Record your idea (you can use anything – the quality of recording doesn’t mater at this stage). A phone works well because then you have got your ideas on you all the time.
   Listen back to your idea and try tweaking it.

Hope this helps – have fun composing!

Next, we are heading for Secondary Chords.

An understanding of chords is vital for any musician – understand chords and you are well on the way to being able to compose and perform some great music.
If music was a cake then melody would be the icing and chords would be the sponge – the melody is the first thing you are drawn to, but chords determine the overall harmonic flavour of the music.

Don’t believe me? Have a listen to this short phrase of music played twice – each version has a different set of chords (called a chord progression) underneath it – same melody, very different flavour!

      Play Chords Example Now

Sounds cool, doesn’t it?
See how easy it is to change the mood from happy to sad just by changing the chords.

In the next few lessons I’m going to show you what chords are, how to create them and when to use them. It is definitely going to take your musicianship onto a whole new level.

First up, we’re going to have a look at triads.

Chords and Triads

Triads are made up of 3 notes played on top of each other. You will often hear people describe triads as chords. They consist of a bottom note (root), a middle note (3rd) and a top note (5th)

How to make a triad

Triads are easy to create – all you need to know is your alphabet and how to count to 8!
First, work out which note you want to build your triad on (in our example we are building one on C).
Now start at the bottom note and count up 3 to get the next note (include the starting note when you’re counting) (in our example, 3 notes up from C is E).
Now start again at the bottom note and this time count up 5 (5 notes up from C is G). So, to build a triad on C we have used the notes C-E-G.

Easy, right?
Now, the tricky bit. You will find that if you build triads starting on different notes then they may sound very different. The type of triad depends on the number of semitones separating each of the notes. Let me explain…

Different Types of Triads

There are 4 different types of musical triad:

Happy and Sad Triads

Listen to the difference between a triad built on C (C-E-G) and one built on A (A-C-E). The first one sounds positive/happy (this is a major triad), whilst the 2nd one sound negative/sad (this is a minor triad).

      Major and Minor Triad audio clip

So why the difference?

The difference in sound is due to the change in number of semitones between the root and 3rd notes. Look at the keyboards below:

Can you see that the difference between the bottom (root) and top (5th) notes stays the same (there are 7 semitones between the bottom and top notes in both triads – rather confusingly we don’t include the starting note when counting up semitones!).

The difference is in the interval between the bottom (root) and middle (3rd) notes.
In the major triad there are 4 semitones between C and E – 4 semitones equals a major 3rd (hence the happy sound in a C major triad).
In the minor triad there are only 3 semitones between the A and C – 3 semitones equals a minor 3rd (hence the sad sound in a minor triad).
OK. So that’s not too complicated. What about the other 2 types of triad?

Scary and Mysterious Triads

There are 2 other types of triad – both of which have a slightly unnerving sound quality.
The first is a diminished triad – this is a variation of a minor triad.
To create a diminished triad all you need to do is play a minor triad and then lower the top note by 1 semitone (there are now only 6 semitones between the bottom and top notes of the triad – this is called a diminished 5th). Have a look at the example below and listen to how scary and tense it is!

      diminished triad audio clip

The other triad is called an augmented triad. To create an augmented triad, play a major triad and then raise the top note up by a semitone (there are now 8 semitones separating top note and bottom note – this is called an augmented 5th). This sounds even more unnerving and is rather mysterious.

      augmented triad audio clip

Hope that all makes sense?

Next, we are going to have a look at Primary Chords.

Canon

A canon is a piece of music where a melody is played and then imitated (one or more times) after a short delay. It is a contrapuntal technique as the melodic lines move independently from each other, but are linked harmonically.

As you can see from the diagram above the first melody is called the leader (otherwise known as dux or proposta), whilst the following melodies are called the follower (or comes or riposta).

Let’s have a look at/listen to an example:

      Play 3 Blind Mice Canon Example

The above example is a simple canon more commonly known as a Round – all of the voices are identical in pitch and rhythm. A lot of other nursery rhymes can be sung in this way.
The above example can be described as a Canon in 3 as it has 3 voices. If it had 4 voices it would be called a Canon in 4.

Other Types of Canon Music

Interval Canons
In some canons the leader melody is transposed when it is imitated – these are called interval canons.
If the transpositions are carried out exactly then this is called strict canon.
If the intervals are changed slightly in order to fit the scale (e.g. a leap of a major sixth may become a leap of a minor sixth) then this is called free canon.

Canon by Inversion
In a canon by inversion the follower moves in contrary motion to the leader. For example, if the leader goes up a third the follower will go down a third and vice versa:

Retrograde Canon
In a retrograde canon the follower plays the leader melody backwards.

Retrograde Inversion
In retrograde inversion the follower plays the leader melody in contrary motion and backwards!!

More than one Simultaneous Canon

Sometimes you will come across a piece of music where there is more than one canon being played simultaneously. E.g. if there were 4 voices playing and 2 simultaneous canons then it would be described as a Canon: Four in Two (4 voices in 2 simultaneous canons).

Accompanied Canon
Sometimes a piece of music will have a canon accompanied by another separate part which does not play in canon. This is the case with Pachelbel’s canon in D major, arguably the most famous canon having become a regular feature in both concerts and at weddings. Palchelbel’s canon is a simple canon (or round) in 3 voices with an additional Ground Bass accompaniment.

Composing Music in Canon Form

Canon Form can be a very useful tool for composing. I have used it on various occasions when writing music for choirs. It can be tricky to get the parts to interweave effectively. My advice is to start with a leader melody that is fairly simple and try delaying the entry of the 1st follower line by about 2 bars. This should give you a good start to writing music in Canon Form.

Rondo Form

Rondo Form is a natural extension of the 2 forms we have looked at already – Binary Form and Ternary Form. If Binary Form is A-B and Ternary Form is A-B-A then Rondo Form is A-B-A-C-A-D-A.

The main section or theme (known as “A”) alternates with contrasting themes (you will hear these called various names such as “episodes”, “couplets” or “digressions”). These contrasting themes are labelled B, C, D, etc.. So, a typical Rondo Form structure looks like:

Each new section contrasts in some way to what has gone before it. You will find that most composers writing a Rondo Form piece will use changes in melody, key and harmony to contrast the different sections.
It is quite similar to Theme and Variations form except for the fact that Section A returns each time in Rondo Form, but does not return in Theme and Variations Form.

An Example of Rondo Form

Have a listen to this example of Mozart’s Rondo in D major K.311:

      Play Rondo Form Example

How To Compose Music in Rondo Form

Composing in Rondo form is great – it is something I am always encouraging people to do because it provides a solid and interesting structure to any piece of music.
The contrasting sections give a sense of variety to the piece, whilst the return A Section helps give the piece a sense of coherence and unity. It is a great way to develop your compositions beyond Binary Form and Ternary Form.

Click Here for Musical Structures Lesson 5 on Theme and Variations.

Ternary Form

A musical structure where the piece is divided into 3 distinct sections. The 1st and last sections are exactly the same as each other and so the form can be written A – B – A as below:

Each of the sections sound like complete pieces of music in themselves – you could play just the A Section of a Ternary Form piece and it would not “feel” like it must continue onto a new section. This is because it ends on a perfect/authentic cadence.
The B Section is usually written in a key that is closely related to the key of the A Section as below:

The B section also usually has a different mood to the A Section. If the A Section is upbeat and lively then the B Section will often be more subdued.
Have a look/listen to this famous example of Ternary Form – “Alla Hornpipe” by Handel from The Water Music.

      Play Ternary Form Example Example

Compound Ternary Form

This is when each of the sections (A-B-A) are subdivided into a clear Ternary Form structure as in the diagram below. Examples of Compound Ternary Form include trios and minuets.

Composing in Ternary Form

Ternary Form is a great structure to compose in because the repeated A Section gives your piece a sense of unity and balance which you don’t quite get in Binary Form. The contrasting B section will also help focus you to create fresh ideas and bring variety to your composition.
I would suggest writing an A Section (you may have already written a piece of music that would work well as an A Section in a Ternary Form piece).
Once you have finished your A Section try writing a new section, but use the different keys suggested in the Ternary Form diagram above.
Good luck!

Click Here for Music Structures Lesson 4 on Rondo Form.

Binary Form

Binary Form describes the structure of a piece of music which is divided into 2 different sections. The 2 sections are usually labelled A and B.

The key concept to grasp is that there is some sort of contrast between the A section and the B section. This contrast is usually (though not always) created by a key change. There are 2 main types of Binary Form you will come across.

Simple Binary Form

Simple Binary Form refers to the basic Binary Form structure outlined above. There is an A section followed by a B section in a different key (both sections are usually repeated). It usually follows the pattern of key changes outlined below:

Examples of Simple Binary Form – A large number of Baroque dances typically had a Binary Form structure. Examples include the sarabande, allemande, gigue, minuet, bouree and the courante. Have a look/listen to his example:

 

      Play Handel Binary Form Example

 

Rounded Binary Form

Rounded Binary Form is very similar to simple Binary Form except for the fact that Section B is often longer than section A and part of section A is repeated again at the end of section B.

Rounded Binary Form was very common in the Classical period of music. It was often used as the structure for the theme in a set of theme and variations. Here is an example from Mozart’s Piano Sonata in D major K284 3rd movement:

 

      Play Mozart Rounded Binary Form Example

 

Composing using Binary Form

Binary Form is a fantastic structure to use if you are composing because it immediately brings a sense of contrast to the piece you are writing. It is also great because it is a foundation upon which you can build. If you write a piece of music in binary form and want to keep going you can easily extend it into Ternary Form (by repeating the A section to form A-B-A) or create a Rondo (by adding more sections to create A-B-A-C-A-D-A). With the basic music theory you have gained from this lesson you easily have enough to get started – good luck!

Click Here for Music Structures Lesson 3 on Ternary Form.

Theme and Variations

Theme and variations is a very common musical structure you will come across, especially in classical music. The structure is built upon a musical idea called the theme which is played at the start of the piece. The theme can be as short as 8 bars in length or can be much longer. It usually consists of a memorable melody with an accompaniment of some sorts.

Once the theme has been played the composer then repeats it, but varies it in some way. This is called Variation 1.
Once Variation 1 has been played, the composer repeats the theme again, this time varying it in a different way, thus producing Variation 2.
This process is repeated as many times as the composer chooses producing a musical structure called Theme and Variations. Each variation is different, but can still be traced back to the original theme in some way.

How are Variations Created?

There are a number of ways in which composers vary the theme. Here are the most common elements of music which are changed:

Melody – composers will change the original melody in a number of different ways. These include adding notes (addition), taking notes away (subtraction) and inverting the melody (if the melody went up in pitch in the theme it is played going down in pitch in the variation). Another common technique is to add ornamentation such as trills.

Rhythm – composers will change the rhythm of a melody when it is played again.

Harmony/Tonality – Key changes are a great way of varying a theme. A composer may play the theme in a major key and then reharmonise it in a minor key (the relative minor is a common choice) or vice versa.

Time Signature – a theme played in 4/4 and then changed to 3/4 will instantly lead to a variation.

Other elements to look out for which can be varied are dynamics, tempo, instrumentation and texture.

How to Compose Theme and Variations

Composing theme and variations is extremely rewarding as a composer as it will push you on to new levels. It will force you to get the most out of your ideas.
To get started, I suggest you find a short musical idea you have written which you are really pleased with – something that is “catchy” will help. Try recording it or writing out the score of it (whichever works best for you) – this is your theme.

Once you have done that try choosing one of the techniques listed above and use it to improvise a variation based on your theme. Varying the melody is a good place to start. Try improvising a different melody. Record or notate your idea and then compare it to your original theme. Your variation should sound different to the original theme, but should still be recognizable as being based upon the theme.

Try this a few times until you have produced a variation you are pleased with. When you have done this try varying the theme again, this time using a different technique such as rhythm.

Click Here for Musical Structures Lesson 6 on Canon.